Programming for Speed Development

elitefts™ Sunday Edition

Speed is an almost universal skill among athletes of all fast-paced sports. Strength aside, and all other things being equal, it is the faster athlete who excels in his sport. The faster player in a game of rugby will get to a loose ball before anyone else. The faster wide receiver will catch a longer pass and continue on to an uncontested touchdown. The faster tennis player gets to the other side of the court quicker in order to avoid missing the shot. Speed is important in many sports; there is no question about it. The obvious problem lies in the confusion surrounding how to adequately and rapidly develop this much-needed sprinting ability.

Any kind of training for a sport is complex and unstable in nature. The athlete cannot maintain peak levels of performance in all areas on a year-round basis. For this reason, the training is split into several phases, cycles, and components throughout the year. For an athlete who has very specific demands, such as the sprinter, this can be well managed, and the athlete and his coach can plan the training year accordingly. For athletes in sports with more diverse demands and a higher skill component, the variables are different. Sports such as rugby, American football, lacrosse, soccer, and Aussie rules football have a high level of varied demands. The athlete requires the ability to absorb impact, sprint in multiple directions, change direction, get up and down from the ground, etc. On top of this, the athlete is frequently playing competitively—about every week. For this reason, the athlete often needs to achieve a high level of speed development in a limited window of time. Not only that, sprint training must not hinder other important components of performance and must be viewed holistically.

The following is an effective sprint training model that can be used as a basis for the development of speed among athletes from a diverse range of high-speed sports.

The Three Components of Performance

There are three components that make up performance—not just with speed development but with all physical skills and capacities. Every type of training is aimed at changing and improving one or more of these three components.

1. Energy Systems

Energy systems are the systems of energy metabolism that determine the primary fuel for a given activity. There are three energy systems: 1) the creatine phosphate/ATP system, which is responsible for maximal physical effort that is limited to a short period of time (this includes such things as a vertical jump, a max deadlift, or a 100-meter sprint), 2) the lactate anaerobic system, which fuels near maximal activity sustained for a period of 10 seconds to three minutes; and 3) the aerobic energy system, which is responsible for sustained, low-level activity that can be sustained indefinitely. In order to perform at the highest level in a given skill, the right combination of energy system stimulation must be achieved. Training must pertain to the predominant energy system used in the actual sport or activity itself. For sprint training, this falls into the creatine phosphate/ATP system as the primary fuel source. Secondary is the lactate anaerobic energy system for sustained or repeat sprint efforts and recovery between efforts. Training must be structured accordingly.

2. Biomechanics

Biomechanics is the science of movement. The human body is designed to move in a specific way during certain tasks. There is an optimal way to move and there is a less than optimal way to move for any given task. Every physical skill or capacity is largely limited by the efficiency of the way the human body moves in order to conduct that skill. Performance improvements in any domain can be made by the correction and perfection of the biomechanics of the movement(s) involved. In order to sprint effectively, biomechanics must be learned, and this involves the breakdown, correcting, and rebuilding of each phase of a sprint. It looks at stride length, foot placement, inactive leg return, posture, and at least a dozen other components. At least a portion of an effective sprint training program must focus on biomechanics. Without it the athlete is naturally hindered.

3. Structure/Anatomy

The structure of the human body has a major influence on the ability of a person to perform a given physical task. Structure and anatomy refers to both the genetic/pre-determined, permanent physical structure (height, hip width, limb length, etc.), as well as the changeable aspects (muscle mass, fat mass, bone density, muscle balance/imbalance etc.). In order to sprint at the height of one’s potential, training must cater to effective and congruous structural and anatomical development.

Tenets of Speed Development

Developing speed is not simply about repeatedly moving the legs faster in hopes that this will translate to carrying your body at a greater pace from point A to point B. There are many factors in play that influence both sprinting performance and one’s training capacity and day-to-day developmental efficiency and effectiveness.

Biomechanical Correction

In order to sprint effectively, the athlete must first know how sprinting should be conducted in order to move at the maximum pace. Biomechanical correction is the teaching of correct sprinting movement from initial take-off through acceleration and maintenance of top speed. This must take into consideration every detail such as stride length, foot placement, return of the inactive leg, arm swing, head position, posture, etc.

Structural Balance

Rapid, full body movements, such as sprinting, require rapid coordination of a series of high-speed, forceful muscle contractions from a very broad range of muscle groups. The firing pattern of each muscle must be in optimal synchronization with other muscles in order to produce an efficient movement and avoid injuring muscles and connective tissue. In order to optimize and develop structural balance, the sprint training program must begin with an analytical approach. Once the athlete is assessed, his weaknesses identified, and the areas of improvement revealed, the athlete must spend at least a small portion of time developing and improving any structural imbalance that could hinder movement. Structural imbalances have an effect ranging from inefficiency of sprinting technique (leading to sub-optimal performance) to severe weakness or tightness (leading to debilitating injury).

Strength > Power > Speed

In any sport or physical task, you should first get strong. A stronger muscle is a more effective muscle. This is a universal truth. Strength is a very broad and general skill that applies to anything physical, especially pertaining to the performance perspective. The fastest way for an athlete to improve his performance is to increase strength to weight ratio—that is, possessing a high level of strength in relation to how much you weigh.

In order to sprint faster over any distance, the many muscles involved in the sprinting action need to be able to contract both forcefully and at a great speed. The harder the foot strikes the ground the more distance you will get per stride. If stride rate remains consistent, this translates to greater horizontal ground speed (i.e., a faster sprint). This force and velocity combination is referred to as power. Muscular power, or explosive power, is the result of force combined with velocity. Strength development allows for muscles to produce greater force. So, in order to develop power, strength must exist. This strength is taken a step forward towards power through forceful contractions performed at maximum speed.

Speed is the most obvious component of sprint performance. Speed refers to different aspects within different components. The broad representation of speed is the velocity of the sprint itself, meaning the speed at which someone runs. In the context of sprint training, speed is only one component of faster sprint performance. Speed here refers to the rate at which a limb or body segment moves from one phase or position to the next. The best example is the rate at which the leg moves from the end-point of a stride all the way through to the next stride.

Tolerance and Adaptation

Tolerance refers to the volume and intensity of training from which an athlete is realistically able to recover. The greater the tolerance (recovery ability), the more volume that can be achieved. If greater volume can be achieved with adequate recovery, then a greater level of specific training can occur, leading to faster and more prominent adaptations. Adaptation is why we train. Apply a stimulus that is greater than what the body is doing, has done, or is able to do and it adapts to those demands. In order to be a faster sprinter, there must first be adequate stimuli. From these adequate stimuli the athlete must develop a greater ability to recover, hence building tolerance to training and gradually increasing the demands. Greater demands combined with adequate recovery result in better performance.

A Theoretical Template for Speed Development

Using the information we have covered so far, we will now look at some specifics and how the components and principles can be applied to an effective sprint training model.

Phase One – Assessment and Analysis

The first step towards developing winning speed for any purpose is assessment and, in turn, the analysis of that assessment. In my opinion, assessment and analysis is often either a) not thorough enough, or b) over complicated and irrelevant to the task at hand. In order to combat this, we need an effective assessment model that will provide data that is relevant to the construction of a sprint program. The following checklist should be adhered to when assessing an athlete for a sprint program:

• Establish the overall goal in a broad sense and then define smaller objectives as components of that goal.
• Design tests that address each objective.
• Include assessments that explore auxiliary needs such as movement screening, postural analysis, gait analysis, etc.
• Analyze the data, draw conclusions, and provide a solution for each of the findings.

It’s a simple model, but logic is often overlooked in favor of applying excessive technical knowledge. The key is minimalism while also being thorough enough to address each key area. Examples of sprint training assessments:

• 40-yard dash
• Illinois agility test
• Vertical jump (to test maximal power)
• Strength tests, namely the squat and the deadlift
• Movement screen such as a gait analysis
• Body composition tests such as a body fat percentage test

Based on the relevant assessments conducted, a program outline is constructed that fixes weaknesses and improves performance in the most needed areas.

Phase Two – Pre-Foundational Training

The pre-foundational phase of training is the phase dedicated to learning the movements and perfecting basic technique. This phase is only applied to an athlete who has very limited sprint training experience.

During this phase, the athlete undergoes further assessment in the context of training as opposed to being under testing conditions. The order of priority during this phase is as follows:

1. Analysis of basic movement during prescribed training sessions. This involves actual training sessions where the athlete is assessed or assesses himself during the movements performed during the session. Through this, the athlete can then identify muscle imbalances, mobility problems, stability problems, etc.
2. Readjustment of training to accommodate for shortfalls uncovered during the close monitoring of early sessions. Things to look for in a sprint training program are glute weakness, hamstring weakness, hamstring tightness, hip flexor tightness, short stride, excessive head movement, and poor spinal alignment.
3. Movement training. Here the athlete will place emphasis on learning the movements involved in both the sprint technique itself and the associated training, such as strength exercises. Training will involve a lot of work on stride correction, learning strength exercises, etc. The intensity during this stage is minimal, with a sharper rise as technique is improved.
4. Overload and training preparation. The athlete is prepared for a full sprint training program by steeply increasing the volume and intensity of the training until it resembles the training of a more experienced athlete.  During this phase the athlete will use low intensity and low volume and will learn the following, among other skills:

• Compound strength exercises like the squat, deadlift, bench press, standing military press, and barbell power row.
• Explosive lifts (with some athletes, not all). This includes things like cleans, power snatch, and sumo deadlift high pull.
• Biomechanics of sprinting.

The aim of this phase is learning and becoming familiar with the movements, drills, and skills.

Phase Three – Foundational Phase

The foundational phase is the initial phase of actual training. This is where all athletes with prior training experience will start, even in highly advanced athletes. The foundational phase needs to be revisited several times per year, as this is where a base level of movement and work capacity is built without too much emphasis on close specificity. This is a broad and general phase of training.

The foundational phase is about, as the name suggests, building a foundation from which an athlete can tolerate high volumes and greater intensity of more specific training protocols. The order of priority for this phase is as follows:

1. Setting a broad training prescription that is complimentary to all future development. This involves correct exercise selection and progressively utilizing more specific and challenging training protocols. Utilized here are the basic strength training movements such as the big three and a few auxiliary movements, short and basic sprint drills, and an introduction to plyometrics.
2. Adding and subtracting. During the initial stages of the foundational phase, the program will be adjusted and calibrated to suit the current needs of the athlete. This is achieved through adding exercises and drills that cover a broader foundation and subtracting those that are not contributing to the greater outcome. More complex sprint drills are introduced in order to learn new skills like starting speed and acceleration drills. More technical strength movements, such as Olympic lifts, are then added.
3. Overload and progression. The foundational phase is designed to build a foundation in the athlete, which consists of several components—one being tolerance to volume and intensity while maintaining recovery. Progression is most prominent in the beginner who is undergoing a program of this nature for the first time. Over time there is a noticeable decline in progression; therefore, overload needs to be adjusted to meet that need. For example, in the beginning of the phase, there might be a session consisting of 6 x 25m sprints at maximum pace with 90 seconds rest between each. By the end of the phase, that workout has evolved to include 8 x 25m as well as 3 x 50m and 1 x 100m. Sprint work is overloaded with greater volume whereas any strength work can be overloaded with overall volume, intensity, and the load that is lifted. Either way, progression and overload during this phase are sharp, with a gradual levelling out towards the end of the phase.
4. Test and adjust, watch, and shoot. After every four to six weeks, an athlete should retest some of his key skills. Here he might perform a timed 40-yard dash, a vertical jump test, max strength tests (on the three powerlifting movements), and the Illinois agility test. After every set of tests, the program is to be reviewed and any necessary adjustments need to be made.

During this phase the athlete will apply intensity ranging from 75% on average at the start of the phase to 100% used towards the end. This phase of the program would theoretically include the following (depending on the individual):

• A strength program that includes the basic big compound lifts such as the squat, deadlift, bench press, pull-ups, and military press. Towards the end of the phase, the athlete can begin to learn explosive lifts like Olympic lifts.
• Starting speed drills such as max pace sprints of less than 20 meters.
• Acceleration drills, such as wind-up sprints, where the athlete starts at a 50% pace and gradually increases the speed over a distance of up to 120 meters, eventually reaching absolute maximum speed.
• Plyometrics at the starting level, such as squat jumps and box jumps.
• Repeat speed training. Sprinting drills at near-max pace with minimal rest between sprints. This serves to improve acute recovery ability and provides conditioning for athletes who require the ability to repeatedly move fast with little rest. It is also a great way to increase work tolerance in order to later increase training volume.

Phase Four – Developmental Phase

The developmental phase is where the bulk of training will occur. Here the training is more specific and pertains specifically to the exact demands of the sport, while also matching the athlete’s level of ability and tolerance to training.

The developmental phase exists to build the necessary skills and physical capacity specific to an athlete's sport. The order of priority for this phase is as follows:

1. High level understanding of the overall training needs. This understanding is used to construct a long-term training outline that will serve as the general structure of the ongoing program. From there, short-term training programs are designed to meet all the needs that have been uncovered, analyzed, and understood.
2. Order of training priority needs to be established. There are many moving parts in a sprint training program. Some training tasks are critical to the overall success of the program while other components are auxiliary and act to support the main functions of the program. The latter are less important. Training needs to be structured so that primary priorities are addressed before time and energy are spent on secondary and supporting needs. A good example of this is sprint sessions versus strength sessions. Sprinting speed is the goal of the program and strength supports that. Therefore, sprinting needs to be a primary part of the program. Strength training, being a supporting component, should not hinder sprint-specific training. A common example of what not to do would be to use enough volume during a strength session to cause muscle soreness and ongoing fatigue that affects the intensity of sprint sessions. Structure a training session and a training cycle to ensure that the main priorities are met and that none of the supporting/auxiliary components are interfering.
3. Continuous progression is a must. The law of diminishing returns means that the more experienced an athlete is and the longer he has been performing a specific program, the less able the body is to continue to progress and get stronger and faster. For this reason, programs must be structured in mini and macro cycles that vary the training in very precise ways to ensure training remains specific to the task at hand and allows ongoing progression in the long term. For an effective sprint program, I recommend having three different seven-day training cycles that vary the stimulus. Week one can be strength dominant with an emphasis on big lifts of the compound movements and fast lifts like cleans. During this cycle, the athlete will still undergo sprint sessions, but they will be basic in nature and lower in volume. Week two can be short-sprint based with an emphasis on speed and power, and with a lot of acceleration drills, take off drills, resisted sprints, assisted sprints, and only a limited or even regressed level of strength training. Week three is balanced between strength training and speed-endurance. Higher volume is used with strength workouts and sprint work includes longer sprints. At the end of the three weeks, the athlete goes back to cycle one and so on. This is just an example, and training also needs to be structured into longer cycles with consideration given to an entire season or off-season.
4. Re-assessment of athletes, whether training themselves or training with a coach, is something that should take top priority. Assessment includes assessment of the athlete under both training conditions and testing conditions and involves an assessment of the actual program (not just the athlete). With regular assessments there is more information provided that can aid further program design.
5. Recovery. Perhaps this should be a higher priority; however, the reason it is not is because it is not complex to understand. Recovery is a component that actually takes top priority throughout every phase of training without exception. But from a design stand-point, you just need to include it. Sprinting and the associated strength and power training is an intense, high impact, and aggressive activity. A lot of strain is placed on the central nervous system. A lack of recovery translates very noticeably into declining sprint times, poor strength gains, and many other detrimental problems. So, within a well-designed sprint program for any athlete, recovery must be factored into the program and it must be adequate and specific to the athlete in training.

This phase of training is more complex than the other phases. Periodization must be applied to the developmental phase in order to ensure continuous progression and competitive performance. Training varies from cycles of absolute 100% intensity to recovery or reloading cycles hitting some drills at as low as 60% intensity. This phase of the program would theoretically include the following, depending on the individual:

• A progressive and periodized strength training program focusing on max strength for about 75% of the strength component of the overall program and strength-endurance for the other 25%. Strength training should include large compound movements and fast-paced explosive lifts.
• Starting speed. These are drills that focus on going from a complete standstill to maximum pace in a very short period of time. The focus is on covering distance of between five and 20 meters as fast as possible. This is more important in most sports than a fast 100 meter.
• Acceleration. In most sports that involve running, the speed at which an athlete covers ground varies. There are times when an athlete may be running at less than full pace. At short notice, the athlete may need to pick up pace to a maximum pace sprint. In this phase there will be emphasis on developing the ability to sharply increase speed over a short distance.
• Transfer of brute force into force at velocity. That’s a fancy way of saying power training. Strength training, like with any athletic performance training, forms the foundation of speed development. If an athlete cannot put out high force production, then he cannot apply force at high velocity. However, the training does not end at strength—that force needs to be applied to high speed movements. I would say that the number one element to increase sprinting speed, especially over short distances, is power development. In earlier phases, strength is developed to at least a foundational level. During this phase, strength continues to be developed with more emphasis applied to speed-strength, or power. This is developed through plyometrics training two or three days out of every seven-day cycle. In addition to that, fast moving strength exercises are used, such as kettlebell swings and Olympic lifts.
• Training in the developmental phase is always organized into phases and cycles. In the summary of this article we will look at the basic overall structure.

Phase Five – Preparation Phase

The preparation phase is a highly specific phase of training that places emphasis on skill components and the specific mechanics of movement required in the sport. This phase is relatively short and simple compared to the developmental phase. It all comes down to two things: 1) practicing the sport more frequently (which involves a breakdown of the mechanics and fine tuning), and 2) movements that match those used in the sport with less emphasis on intensity and volume.

The preparation phase exists to fine tune the athlete for a short period after a developmental phase is conducted. In a track athlete, this phase would fall during the approach of an important competition. This is where the athlete peaks. In team sports or sports like tennis, the athlete is competing usually very regularly, so it can be strategically placed at the most important parts of the season. My personal recommendation is, for a sport like rugby, to plan training with a long foundational phase, an extra-long developmental phase, and then a short preparation phase for the most important part of the season, generally being during the finals period.

Order of priority for the preparation phase:

1. Analysis of the previous phase of training and the previous phase of competition. Everything that recently precedes this phase needs to be looked at. From there, the athlete or coach pinpoints weaknesses and areas requiring most improvement and picks those out as technical aspects to be improved.
2. Using the analysis, the athlete will break down what he is doing and focus on a lower volume and intensity and place more emphasis on technical ability. Here the athlete will break down each phase of the sprint and perform drills that improve each single component. This is like a relearning of biomechanics. Technical skill, however, should already be high—this is just the final 3% of performance enhancement.
3. Tidy up weak areas and imbalances. Throughout the developmental phase, the athlete should be well aware of how he is responding to the training and what is not working. During that phase, weaknesses should be ironed out, leaving no weak links in the kinetic chain. The preparation phase aims to find very fine details and improving those. Things that are easily missed. During this phase the athlete will focus on things like tight hip flexors that could be limiting stride length, slight weakness in just one quadriceps muscle that may be limiting power off the mark, etc. This is also the time for some extra rehab work.

This phase does not need an example, as this has been covered. To sum it up, the preparation phase is that final 3% of performance—it’s the icing on the cake. Small weaknesses are fixed, imbalances are balanced, and technical skills are fine-tuned from every angle and from each phase of the sprinting movement.

Summary and Conclusion – Putting it all together

Sprinting speed is a universal skill applied to a wide variety of sports. After the development of strength at the foundational level, it is speed that takes top priority in the largest number of sports. In order to get the most out of speed development, the athlete needs structure. That structure should have long- and short-term objectives and aim to coincide with the competitive schedule of the sport. The Unleashed Training model of speed development seems complex from what has so far been covered, but it doesn’t need to be overly so.

To sum it up and put everything into context, we will look at a very basic template and overview of all of the phases—how long they will run and how to structure training cycles within phases.

Each phase, besides the pre-foundational phase, will be revisited every season. Once an athlete peaks after his preparation phase, the overall cycle starts again at the foundational phase.

Pre-Foundational

This phase requires no set structure. The objective here is to provide the basic skills to a new or inexperienced athlete. Basic sprint mechanics and the ability to perform basic strength movements are covered. This phase will go for no longer than four to six weeks.

Foundational

The foundational phase is where the base is built. This phase will further develop correct mechanics and focus on overall training tolerance. This phase is broad and general in nature and prepares the athlete for more specific training and a higher workload. Here the athlete gets accustomed to undergoing regular sprinting, strength, and power sessions. This phase should last for between 8 to 16 weeks, depending on the sport and the competition schedule.

Developmental

This is where things get most technical. The developmental phase is where the bulk of training occurs. During this phase, there are smaller training cycles with their own specific objective. A theoretical outline of training cycles is as follows:

Cycle One: Maximal strength, power development, and speed. Volume is low, intensity is high. 14-21 days.

Cycle Two: Strength endurance, speed endurance, repeat speed. Volume is high, intensity is slightly lower, sitting at 90% as opposed to 95-100%. 14-21 days.

Cycle Three: Recovery and deload. Volume and intensity are both reduced. The athlete focuses primarily on recovery and going through the motions. 7-14 days.

Cycle Four: Overload. The focus of this cycle is to sharply increase training volume and training intensity. The first few sessions are only just above what a recovery session would be, with greater volume and intensity added session by session. Speed, power, and strength get equal focus and distribution. 30 days.

Cycle Five: Mini recovery. Like cycle three but strictly limited to a maximum of seven days.

Cycle Six: Mixed training. This cycle changes the program entirely to train in a way that is completely different to the regular exercises and drills used in the main part of the program. Intensity is moderate-high. During this phase, the athlete is encouraged to train in a somewhat random manner. After this cycle the body is primed again for specific training after a period without it. 14-21 days followed by 10 days of complete rest with no training at all.

From here the athlete begins again at Cycle One. For athletes with a long competitive season, like rugby players, the developmental phase will see the athlete through each cycle twice. For track sprinters and the like, the athlete may deviate from the developmental phase and lead off into the preparation phase after cycle three and then revisit the developmental phase where he left off after the major competition. This is a flexible structure and not one to be bound by.

Preparation

The preparation phase is the refinement period. There are no specific training cycles within the preparation phase. The main goal is picking those small 0.01% things that add to the athlete’s skills and capacity. Sprinting biomechanics are analyzed and redeveloped, muscle imbalances are balanced, and all the small details tidied up. This phase should last no longer than 14-21 days. In some athletes, it might span as long as six weeks, but in most cases this is not necessary.

Once the preparation phase is finished and the athlete has peaked, there should be a recovery period of 14-21 days where no hard training is to occur. From there, the athlete then revisits the foundational phase and starts the process again for the next pre-season and season. The important thing to note is testing and analysis. The athlete should, if the program is well designed, perform exceptionally better in sprint-related tests each time he revisits a phase of training. It is pointless to be starting from scratch year after year.

This speed development structure is to be used as a guide and a loose template. It is expected that athletes and coaches have the knowledge, skills, and capacity to adjust it to meet their own specific needs. I believe in specific training for the task at hand that caters to the strength and weaknesses of the individual. There is no generic structure to suit everyone, hence the broadness and flexibility of the preceding programming advice.